Personality Assessment Story and Prospect - Revision history

Flc: /* Generalities */

2025-10-05T21:57:16Z

Generalities

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	=Generalities=		=Generalities=
	While some definitions of "personality" refer to a person’s entire character, its assessment usually concentrates on the affective, behavioral, and cognitive aspects—three interconnected dimensions that do not include intelligence, ~~also referred to as general mental abilities (GMA), along with~~ other dimensions like values, competencies, and skills. Over time, personality assessment has shifted toward mainly observing a person’s behavior, moving away from its original focus in psychiatry and clinical psychology. It has gradually become a way to measure people’s “normal" characteristics, rather than concentrating on pathological or “abnormal" aspects.		While some definitions of "personality" refer to a person’s entire character, its assessment usually concentrates on the affective, behavioral, and cognitive aspects—three interconnected dimensions that do not include intelligence, and other dimensions like values, competencies, and skills. Over time, personality assessment has shifted toward mainly observing a person’s behavior, moving away from its original focus in psychiatry and clinical psychology. It has gradually become a way to measure people’s “normal" characteristics, rather than concentrating on pathological or “abnormal" aspects.

	Its evolution has also gradually progressed in line with the concepts that academic research and the market have emphasized, beginning with behavior and, around the same period, focusing on the psyche and psychoanalysis. Later, the focus moved to cognition, and more recently, to emotions and empathy. Research in psychology, sociology, and organization has been greatly influenced by major advancements in statistics, computing capabilities, the Internet since around 1900, and more recently, Artificial Intelligence (AI). Early discoveries that still impact modern personality assessments continue to be affected by new technologies. Since our research at GRI has concentrated on assessment techniques for over 20 years, it has become clear that, compared to other fields, the progress within our domain is slow. Additionally, many aspects that remain influential today—though obviously outdated to experts—can only be understood and justified through their historical context.		Its evolution has also gradually progressed in line with the concepts that academic research and the market have emphasized, beginning with behavior and, around the same period, focusing on the psyche and psychoanalysis. Later, the focus moved to cognition, and more recently, to emotions and empathy. Research in psychology, sociology, and organization has been greatly influenced by major advancements in statistics, computing capabilities, the Internet since around 1900, and more recently, Artificial Intelligence (AI). Early discoveries that still impact modern personality assessments continue to be affected by new technologies. Since our research at GRI has concentrated on assessment techniques for over 20 years, it has become clear that, compared to other fields, the progress within our domain is slow. Additionally, many aspects that remain influential today—though obviously outdated to experts—can only be understood and justified through their historical context.

Flc: /* Introduction */

2025-09-30T22:44:05Z

Introduction

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	=Introduction=		=Introduction=
	[[File:History 1.png\|right\|180px]]		[[File:History 1.png\|right\|180px]]
	Personality assessments began with modern psychology in the late 1800s to measure people's social behavior and, more broadly, their emotional states, relationships, motivations, interests, and attitudes. Since then, much has changed, making the landscape of personality assessment unrecognizable to those who started it early on. This article provides an overview of the evolution and milestones of modern personality assessments and their progress toward the “normal” range of social behaviors. It also comments on the outcomes we slowly see emerging.		Personality assessments began with modern psychology in the late 1800s to measure people's social behavior and, more broadly, their emotional states, relationships, motivations, interests, and attitudes. Since then, much has changed, making the landscape of personality assessment unrecognizable to those who started it early on, should they still be around. This article provides an overview of the evolution and milestones of modern personality assessments and their progress toward the “normal” range of social behaviors. It also comments on the outcomes we slowly see emerging.

	=Generalities=		=Generalities=

Flc: /* Early Days */

2025-09-27T04:00:42Z

Early Days

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	In the clinical field, the MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory) assessment dates back to the 1940s, originally developed by Hathaway and McKinley. It is one of the most widely used assessments for clinical applications, with around 15,000 research articles<ref>Source: University of Minnesota Press database. This figure from 2025, includes publications referencing the original MMPI as well as subsequent versions: the MMPI-A, MMPI-2, MMPI-2-RF, and MMPI-3.</ref>. The assessment was regularly revised, resulting in the MMPI-2 and the MMPI-A—a shorter version for teenagers—published in 1989. In 1948, the first version of the CPI (California Psychological Inventory) was published. This assessment was designed for “normal” populations and to be administered by psychologists. Like the MMPI, it is lengthy but is also used in education with students and for work-related applications with candidates and employees.		In the clinical field, the MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory) assessment dates back to the 1940s, originally developed by Hathaway and McKinley. It is one of the most widely used assessments for clinical applications, with around 15,000 research articles<ref>Source: University of Minnesota Press database. This figure from 2025, includes publications referencing the original MMPI as well as subsequent versions: the MMPI-A, MMPI-2, MMPI-2-RF, and MMPI-3.</ref>. The assessment was regularly revised, resulting in the MMPI-2 and the MMPI-A—a shorter version for teenagers—published in 1989. In 1948, the first version of the CPI (California Psychological Inventory) was published. This assessment was designed for “normal” populations and to be administered by psychologists. Like the MMPI, it is lengthy but is also used in education with students and for work-related applications with candidates and employees.

	Since their inception, influenced by psychoanalysis, other techniques called projective methods have emerged as another way to measure personality. With these, participants are exposed to stimuli such as drawings, toys, inkblots, figures, or words, and are free to express what they believe characterizes those stimuli. Two well-known projective techniques are the Rorschach<ref>Rorschach, H. (1941). Psychodiagnostics. (Hans Huber Verlag, Transl.). Bern: Bircher. (Original work published 1921)</ref> and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) from Henry Murray.ref/Murray, H. A. (1938). Explorations in personality. New York: Oxford University Press</ref>. These assessments are still in use today and have been regularly updated.		Since their inception, influenced by psychoanalysis, other techniques called projective methods have emerged as another way to measure personality. With these, participants are exposed to stimuli such as drawings, toys, inkblots, figures, or words, and are free to express what they believe characterizes those stimuli. Two well-known projective techniques are the Rorschach<ref>Rorschach, H. (1941). Psychodiagnostics. (Hans Huber Verlag, Transl.). Bern: Bircher. (Original work published 1921)</ref> and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) from Henry Murray<ref>Murray, H. A. (1938). Explorations in personality. New York: Oxford University Press</ref>. These assessments are still in use today and have been regularly updated.

	Interest and attitude assessments, primarily based on questionnaires, were developed alongside personality assessments. In fact, there is little distinction between the concepts of interest, attitude, and personality measured by some assessments. These concepts are often intertwined. The Strong, which originated in 1927, was revised in the 1970s and again in the 2020s, based on Holland's theory<ref>Holland, J. L. (1966). The psychology of vocational choice. Waltham, MA: Blaisdell.</ref>. It remains one of the most popular in that category. During this early period, the development of personality assessment lagged behind that of intelligence and aptitude assessments. Statistics used to measure intelligence were first developed, and personality assessments benefited from these refinements. Personality, or at least what can be observed behaviorally, continued to evolve as a distinct concept separate from intelligence or cognitive agility.		Interest and attitude assessments, primarily based on questionnaires, were developed alongside personality assessments. In fact, there is little distinction between the concepts of interest, attitude, and personality measured by some assessments. These concepts are often intertwined. The Strong, which originated in 1927, was revised in the 1970s and again in the 2020s, based on Holland's theory<ref>Holland, J. L. (1966). The psychology of vocational choice. Waltham, MA: Blaisdell.</ref>. It remains one of the most popular in that category. During this early period, the development of personality assessment lagged behind that of intelligence and aptitude assessments. Statistics used to measure intelligence were first developed, and personality assessments benefited from these refinements. Personality, or at least what can be observed behaviorally, continued to evolve as a distinct concept separate from intelligence or cognitive agility.

Flc: /* Popularization */

2025-09-27T03:59:54Z

Popularization

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	Shorter personality assessments, created by independent publishers and consulting firms rather than in academia, and intended for use by non-psychologists, started to emerge after World War II. Despite ongoing controversies about the personality concept and its ups and downs in academia (is it truly stable? What role does the environment play?), interest in personality assessment continued to grow among the public and organizations, eventually becoming a more objective technique than the parallel, formal, and semi-formal techniques used in organizations<ref>[[ Assessment_Techniques \| See here an introduction to assessment techniques.]]</ref>.		Shorter personality assessments, created by independent publishers and consulting firms rather than in academia, and intended for use by non-psychologists, started to emerge after World War II. Despite ongoing controversies about the personality concept and its ups and downs in academia (is it truly stable? What role does the environment play?), interest in personality assessment continued to grow among the public and organizations, eventually becoming a more objective technique than the parallel, formal, and semi-formal techniques used in organizations<ref>[[ Assessment_Techniques \| See here an introduction to assessment techniques.]]</ref>.

	Among these techniques, precursors include the AVA (~~1948~~) and the Enneagram (1958). The MBTI, developed by Myers and Briggs from Jung's typology, emerged during the same period. Other traditional techniques for assessing traits continued to evolve and were primarily used in organizations for mass recruitment or for roles requiring special attention, such as security, forensics, the military, or top executives, often by industrial and clinical psychologists.		Among these techniques, precursors include the AVA<ref>Clarke W. V. (1956). The Construction of an Industrial Selection Personality Test. The Journal of Psychology. 41, p. 379-394.</ref> and the Enneagram (1958). The MBTI, developed by Myers and Briggs from Jung's typology, emerged during the same period. Other traditional techniques for assessing traits continued to evolve and were primarily used in organizations for mass recruitment or for roles requiring special attention, such as security, forensics, the military, or top executives, often by industrial and clinical psychologists.

	Increased computing power in the 1980s, along with new programming languages and statistical software like SPSS, enabled the application of factor analysis on larger, more diverse samples—something previous precursors could not have envisioned. This advancement led to new discoveries in assessment techniques and personality dimensions.		Increased computing power in the 1980s, along with new programming languages and statistical software like SPSS, enabled the application of factor analysis on larger, more diverse samples—something previous precursors could not have envisioned. This advancement led to new discoveries in assessment techniques and personality dimensions.

Flc: /* Early Days */

2025-09-27T03:59:14Z

Early Days

← Older revision		Revision as of 03:59, 27 September 2025
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	In the clinical field, the MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory) assessment dates back to the 1940s, originally developed by Hathaway and McKinley. It is one of the most widely used assessments for clinical applications, with around 15,000 research articles<ref>Source: University of Minnesota Press database. This figure from 2025, includes publications referencing the original MMPI as well as subsequent versions: the MMPI-A, MMPI-2, MMPI-2-RF, and MMPI-3.</ref>. The assessment was regularly revised, resulting in the MMPI-2 and the MMPI-A—a shorter version for teenagers—published in 1989. In 1948, the first version of the CPI (California Psychological Inventory) was published. This assessment was designed for “normal” populations and to be administered by psychologists. Like the MMPI, it is lengthy but is also used in education with students and for work-related applications with candidates and employees.		In the clinical field, the MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory) assessment dates back to the 1940s, originally developed by Hathaway and McKinley. It is one of the most widely used assessments for clinical applications, with around 15,000 research articles<ref>Source: University of Minnesota Press database. This figure from 2025, includes publications referencing the original MMPI as well as subsequent versions: the MMPI-A, MMPI-2, MMPI-2-RF, and MMPI-3.</ref>. The assessment was regularly revised, resulting in the MMPI-2 and the MMPI-A—a shorter version for teenagers—published in 1989. In 1948, the first version of the CPI (California Psychological Inventory) was published. This assessment was designed for “normal” populations and to be administered by psychologists. Like the MMPI, it is lengthy but is also used in education with students and for work-related applications with candidates and employees.

	Since their inception, influenced by psychoanalysis, other techniques called projective methods have emerged as another way to measure personality. With these, participants are exposed to stimuli such as drawings, toys, inkblots, figures, or words, and are free to express what they believe characterizes those stimuli. Two well-known projective techniques are the Rorschach (1941) and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) from Henry Murray (1938). These assessments are still in use today and have been regularly updated.		Since their inception, influenced by psychoanalysis, other techniques called projective methods have emerged as another way to measure personality. With these, participants are exposed to stimuli such as drawings, toys, inkblots, figures, or words, and are free to express what they believe characterizes those stimuli. Two well-known projective techniques are the Rorschach<ref>Rorschach, H. (1941). Psychodiagnostics. (Hans Huber Verlag, Transl.). Bern: Bircher. (Original work published 1921)</ref> and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) from Henry Murray.ref/Murray, H. A. (1938). Explorations in personality. New York: Oxford University Press</ref>. These assessments are still in use today and have been regularly updated.

	Interest and attitude assessments, primarily based on questionnaires, were developed alongside personality assessments. In fact, there is little distinction between the concepts of interest, attitude, and personality measured by some assessments. These concepts are often intertwined. The Strong, which originated in 1927, was revised in the 1970s and again in the 2020s, based on Holland's theory (1966). It remains one of the most popular in that category. During this early period, the development of personality assessment lagged behind that of intelligence and aptitude assessments. Statistics used to measure intelligence were first developed, and personality assessments benefited from these refinements. Personality, or at least what can be observed behaviorally, continued to evolve as a distinct concept separate from intelligence or cognitive agility.		Interest and attitude assessments, primarily based on questionnaires, were developed alongside personality assessments. In fact, there is little distinction between the concepts of interest, attitude, and personality measured by some assessments. These concepts are often intertwined. The Strong, which originated in 1927, was revised in the 1970s and again in the 2020s, based on Holland's theory<ref>Holland, J. L. (1966). The psychology of vocational choice. Waltham, MA: Blaisdell.</ref>. It remains one of the most popular in that category. During this early period, the development of personality assessment lagged behind that of intelligence and aptitude assessments. Statistics used to measure intelligence were first developed, and personality assessments benefited from these refinements. Personality, or at least what can be observed behaviorally, continued to evolve as a distinct concept separate from intelligence or cognitive agility.

	=Popularization=		=Popularization=

Flc: /* Popularization */

2025-09-27T03:34:45Z

Popularization

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	=Popularization=		=Popularization=
	[[File:History 3.png\|right\|180px]]		[[File:History 3.png\|right\|180px]]
	Shorter personality assessments, created by independent publishers and consulting firms rather than in academia, and intended for use by non-psychologists, started to emerge after World War II~~. Shorter personality assessments, created by independent publishers and consulting firms rather than in academia, and intended for use by non-psychologists, began to appear in the 1950s~~. Despite ongoing controversies about the personality concept and its ups and downs in academia (is it truly stable? What role does the environment play?), interest in personality assessment continued to grow among the public and organizations, eventually becoming a more objective technique than the parallel, formal, and semi-formal techniques used in organizations<ref>[[ Assessment_Techniques \| See here an introduction to assessment techniques.]]</ref>.		Shorter personality assessments, created by independent publishers and consulting firms rather than in academia, and intended for use by non-psychologists, started to emerge after World War II. Despite ongoing controversies about the personality concept and its ups and downs in academia (is it truly stable? What role does the environment play?), interest in personality assessment continued to grow among the public and organizations, eventually becoming a more objective technique than the parallel, formal, and semi-formal techniques used in organizations<ref>[[ Assessment_Techniques \| See here an introduction to assessment techniques.]]</ref>.

	Among these techniques, precursors include the AVA (1948) and the Enneagram (1958). The MBTI, developed by Myers and Briggs from Jung's typology, emerged during the same period. Other traditional techniques for assessing traits continued to evolve and were primarily used in organizations for mass recruitment or for roles requiring special attention, such as security, forensics, the military, or top executives, often by industrial and clinical psychologists.		Among these techniques, precursors include the AVA (1948) and the Enneagram (1958). The MBTI, developed by Myers and Briggs from Jung's typology, emerged during the same period. Other traditional techniques for assessing traits continued to evolve and were primarily used in organizations for mass recruitment or for roles requiring special attention, such as security, forensics, the military, or top executives, often by industrial and clinical psychologists.

Flc at 03:31, 27 September 2025

2025-09-27T03:31:30Z

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	=Early Days=		=Early Days=
	[[File:History 2.png\|right\|~~150px~~]]		[[File:History 2.png\|right\|180px]]
	Modern techniques involving questionnaires appeared at the end of the 19th century, coinciding with the development of psychiatry and the rise of statistics. Psychiatry and the emerging field of psychological science needed more effective and standardized ways to diagnose and treat clinical cases. Mathematics and physics statistics introduced new scoring methods and data analysis techniques for individuals.		Modern techniques involving questionnaires appeared at the end of the 19th century, coinciding with the development of psychiatry and the rise of statistics. Psychiatry and the emerging field of psychological science needed more effective and standardized ways to diagnose and treat clinical cases. Mathematics and physics statistics introduced new scoring methods and data analysis techniques for individuals.

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	=Popularization=		=Popularization=
	[[File:History 3.png\|right\|~~150px~~]]		[[File:History 3.png\|right\|180px]]
	Shorter personality assessments, created by independent publishers and consulting firms rather than in academia, and intended for use by non-psychologists, started to emerge after World War II. Shorter personality assessments, created by independent publishers and consulting firms rather than in academia, and intended for use by non-psychologists, began to appear in the 1950s. Despite ongoing controversies about the personality concept and its ups and downs in academia (is it truly stable? What role does the environment play?), interest in personality assessment continued to grow among the public and organizations, eventually becoming a more objective technique than the parallel, formal, and semi-formal techniques used in organizations<ref>[[ Assessment_Techniques \| See here an introduction to assessment techniques.]]</ref>.		Shorter personality assessments, created by independent publishers and consulting firms rather than in academia, and intended for use by non-psychologists, started to emerge after World War II. Shorter personality assessments, created by independent publishers and consulting firms rather than in academia, and intended for use by non-psychologists, began to appear in the 1950s. Despite ongoing controversies about the personality concept and its ups and downs in academia (is it truly stable? What role does the environment play?), interest in personality assessment continued to grow among the public and organizations, eventually becoming a more objective technique than the parallel, formal, and semi-formal techniques used in organizations<ref>[[ Assessment_Techniques \| See here an introduction to assessment techniques.]]</ref>.

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	=New Age Progress=		=New Age Progress=
	[[File:History 4.png\|right\|~~150px~~]]		[[File:History 4.png\|right\|180px]]
	Since the 1990s, various non-clinical and short assessments continued to emerge. The advent of the Internet not only simplified how samples of people and statistics could be used to create new assessments but also made assessments easily accessible on laptops, tablets, and phones. Previously, people had to visit assessment centers and complete paper questionnaires with a pencil. These questionnaires needed to be scored manually, although in some cases, scoring could be automated, as with the SAT or GMAT tests used by students. With the Internet, anyone, anywhere, with minimal effort, a keyboard, and a browser connection, could complete a questionnaire on their own. Assessments that were once only found in magazines were then available online. The CliftonStrengths assessment, well known in the USA and published and distributed by Gallup, was developed in the late 1990s and has gained popularity ever since. Other similar and popular methods, such as those based on DISC or the Enneagram, continued to grow in popularity.		Since the 1990s, various non-clinical and short assessments continued to emerge. The advent of the Internet not only simplified how samples of people and statistics could be used to create new assessments but also made assessments easily accessible on laptops, tablets, and phones. Previously, people had to visit assessment centers and complete paper questionnaires with a pencil. These questionnaires needed to be scored manually, although in some cases, scoring could be automated, as with the SAT or GMAT tests used by students. With the Internet, anyone, anywhere, with minimal effort, a keyboard, and a browser connection, could complete a questionnaire on their own. Assessments that were once only found in magazines were then available online. The CliftonStrengths assessment, well known in the USA and published and distributed by Gallup, was developed in the late 1990s and has gained popularity ever since. Other similar and popular methods, such as those based on DISC or the Enneagram, continued to grow in popularity.

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	=Slow Cleansing Process=		=Slow Cleansing Process=
	[[File:History 5.png\|right\|~~200px~~]]		[[File:History 5.png\|right\|180px]]
	We see progress in industries other than personality assessment, such as computers or automotive, where new technologies quickly replace old ones. These old technologies become obsolete, but new ones, even if recent, may soon be outdated as well. This process isn't the same with assessment techniques. The concepts and methods used to assess them gradually evolve. Old concepts and techniques can still be useful, and they’re not fully replaced by new ones. Who you learned those techniques from, the literature about them, the success stories you’ve heard, and your own positive experiences all make replacing them difficult. There is an emotional attachment to those concepts and techniques.		We see progress in industries other than personality assessment, such as computers or automotive, where new technologies quickly replace old ones. These old technologies become obsolete, but new ones, even if recent, may soon be outdated as well. This process isn't the same with assessment techniques. The concepts and methods used to assess them gradually evolve. Old concepts and techniques can still be useful, and they’re not fully replaced by new ones. Who you learned those techniques from, the literature about them, the success stories you’ve heard, and your own positive experiences all make replacing them difficult. There is an emotional attachment to those concepts and techniques.

Flc: /* Introduction */

2025-09-27T03:31:06Z

Introduction

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	=Introduction=		=Introduction=
	[[File:History 1.png\|right\|~~150px~~]]		[[File:History 1.png\|right\|180px]]
	Personality assessments began with modern psychology in the late 1800s to measure people's social behavior and, more broadly, their emotional states, relationships, motivations, interests, and attitudes. Since then, much has changed, making the landscape of personality assessment unrecognizable to those who started it early on. This article provides an overview of the evolution and milestones of modern personality assessments and their progress toward the “normal” range of social behaviors. It also comments on the outcomes we slowly see emerging.		Personality assessments began with modern psychology in the late 1800s to measure people's social behavior and, more broadly, their emotional states, relationships, motivations, interests, and attitudes. Since then, much has changed, making the landscape of personality assessment unrecognizable to those who started it early on. This article provides an overview of the evolution and milestones of modern personality assessments and their progress toward the “normal” range of social behaviors. It also comments on the outcomes we slowly see emerging.

Flc: /* Slow Cleansing Process */

2025-09-27T03:30:48Z

Slow Cleansing Process

← Older revision		Revision as of 03:30, 27 September 2025
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	=Slow Cleansing Process=		=Slow Cleansing Process=
	[[File:History 5.png\|right\|~~300px~~]]		[[File:History 5.png\|right\|200px]]
	We see progress in industries other than personality assessment, such as computers or automotive, where new technologies quickly replace old ones. These old technologies become obsolete, but new ones, even if recent, may soon be outdated as well. This process isn't the same with assessment techniques. The concepts and methods used to assess them gradually evolve. Old concepts and techniques can still be useful, and they’re not fully replaced by new ones. Who you learned those techniques from, the literature about them, the success stories you’ve heard, and your own positive experiences all make replacing them difficult. There is an emotional attachment to those concepts and techniques.		We see progress in industries other than personality assessment, such as computers or automotive, where new technologies quickly replace old ones. These old technologies become obsolete, but new ones, even if recent, may soon be outdated as well. This process isn't the same with assessment techniques. The concepts and methods used to assess them gradually evolve. Old concepts and techniques can still be useful, and they’re not fully replaced by new ones. Who you learned those techniques from, the literature about them, the success stories you’ve heard, and your own positive experiences all make replacing them difficult. There is an emotional attachment to those concepts and techniques.

Flc: /* New Age Progress */

2025-09-27T03:24:46Z

New Age Progress

← Older revision		Revision as of 03:24, 27 September 2025
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	=New Age Progress=		=New Age Progress=
	[[File:History 4.png\|right\|~~300px~~]]		[[File:History 4.png\|right\|150px]]
	Since the 1990s, various non-clinical and short assessments continued to emerge. The advent of the Internet not only simplified how samples of people and statistics could be used to create new assessments but also made assessments easily accessible on laptops, tablets, and phones. Previously, people had to visit assessment centers and complete paper questionnaires with a pencil. These questionnaires needed to be scored manually, although in some cases, scoring could be automated, as with the SAT or GMAT tests used by students. With the Internet, anyone, anywhere, with minimal effort, a keyboard, and a browser connection, could complete a questionnaire on their own. Assessments that were once only found in magazines were then available online. The CliftonStrengths assessment, well known in the USA and published and distributed by Gallup, was developed in the late 1990s and has gained popularity ever since. Other similar and popular methods, such as those based on DISC or the Enneagram, continued to grow in popularity.		Since the 1990s, various non-clinical and short assessments continued to emerge. The advent of the Internet not only simplified how samples of people and statistics could be used to create new assessments but also made assessments easily accessible on laptops, tablets, and phones. Previously, people had to visit assessment centers and complete paper questionnaires with a pencil. These questionnaires needed to be scored manually, although in some cases, scoring could be automated, as with the SAT or GMAT tests used by students. With the Internet, anyone, anywhere, with minimal effort, a keyboard, and a browser connection, could complete a questionnaire on their own. Assessments that were once only found in magazines were then available online. The CliftonStrengths assessment, well known in the USA and published and distributed by Gallup, was developed in the late 1990s and has gained popularity ever since. Other similar and popular methods, such as those based on DISC or the Enneagram, continued to grow in popularity.